Clinical Information

Nickel (Ni) is a highly abundant element with a silvery-white appearance. Nickel is frequently combined with other metals to form alloys and is essential for the catalytic activity of some plant and bacterial enzymes (including in several pathogenic and symbiotic species in humans) but has no known role in humans. Most nickel is used to make stainless steel.

Nickel and its compounds have no characteristic odor or taste. Ni compounds are used for Ni plating, to color ceramics, to make some batteries, and as catalysts that increase the rate of chemical reactions. One of the most toxic nickel compounds is nickel carbonyl, Ni(CO)4, which is used as a catalyst in petroleum refining and in the plastics industry, is frequently employed in the production of metal alloys (which are popular for their anticorrosive and hardness properties), in nickel-cadmium rechargeable batteries, and is used as a catalyst in hydrogenation of oils. Ni(CO)4 is very toxic and is lipid-soluble, allowing it to cross cell membranes.

Occupational exposure to Ni occurs primarily via inhalation of Ni compounds. Inhalation of dust high in Ni content has been associated with development of lung and nasal cancer.

Food is the major source of exposure to Ni. Foods naturally high in Ni concentrations include chocolate, soybeans, nuts, and oatmeal. Individuals may also be exposed to Ni by breathing air, drinking water, or smoking tobacco containing Ni. Stainless steel and coins contain Ni. Some jewelry is plated with Ni or made from Ni alloys. Patients may be exposed to Ni in implanted devices including joint prostheses, sutures, clips, and screws made from Ni-containing alloys.

The most common harmful health effect of Ni in humans is an allergic reaction. Approximately 10% to 20% of the population is sensitive to Ni. The most serious harmful health effects from exposure to Ni, such as chronic bronchitis, reduced lung function, and cancer of the lung and nasal sinus, have occurred in people who have breathed dust containing certain Ni compounds while working in Ni refineries or nickel-processing plants.

Urine is the specimen of choice for the determination of Ni exposure, but serum concentrations can be used to verify an elevated urine concentration.

Patients undergoing dialysis are exposed to Ni and accumulate Ni in blood and other organs; there appear to be no adverse health effects from this exposure. Hypernickelemia has been observed in patients undergoing kidney dialysis. At the present time, this is considered to be an incidental finding as no correlation with toxic events has been identified. Routine monitoring of patients undergoing dialysis is currently not recommended.